Around 1911, Maḥ mūd Nedīm Bey, from 1913 the last Ottoman governor-general of Yemen, met in Cairo with Horatio Herbert Kitchener, then Britain’s pro-consul in Egypt.
When the conversation turned to the diiculties of the Ottoman central government with ending opposition to its rule over this southernmost province of the Ottoman Empire, Kitchener ofered this advice: “In the Red Sea region, there are French, Italian, and English colonies. If you were to study these colonies . . . and see what has been done and what is being done there, your job would be rendered much easier.”

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